Phonetics.

by argelina Thu 9 Sep - 13:34

What does it mean phonetics?

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, it is a scientific study of the way and manner speech sounds are made by vocal tract (different articulators) organs of speech.

How many kinds of communication are there in phonetics and what are they?

1- Animals communication => doesn’t go beyond the instinct (it is instinctive).

2- Human communication => man speaks because he needs to have relation with others, he lives in society, he is social.

note: human language can be divided in small unites which can form a lot of words. It is called “double articulation or duality”

What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of human speech sounds. It is the study and the description of pronunciation; it is concerned with what we pronounce and how we pronounce, it provides means of describing and classifying virtually all the sounds that can be produced by human vocal tract. Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the message is actualized or given audible shape, the nature of these noises, their combinations and their functions in relation to the message.

Over a century ago, the great English philologist, linguist and phonetician HENRY SWEET describe phonetics as: “… the indispensable foundation of all study of language – whether that study purely theoretical, or practical as well …”. Phonetics looks at the speech sounds from three distinct, but independent view points:

1-Articulatory phonetics: it studies the speech process from the production side, it mean how speech sounds are produced (articulated).

2- Acoustic phonetics: it studies the sound waves as they are transmitted through the air from the mouth of the speaker to the ear of the hearer (it is purely physical)

3- Auditory phonetics: it studies the way in which human beings perceive sounds.

The speech chain (the phases of speech):

When someone speak to someone, the sequence of events is outlined as follows:

In response to the need to communicate about some event. The speaker conceptualize the event in a particular way and then encodes that conceptualization in from laid down by the grammar of his language. the linguistically encoded utterance is externalized and apprehended by the header through the agency of a series of events that we term the phases of speech. Any manifestation of language by means of speech is the result of highly complicated series of events, the communication in sound of such a simple concept as it’s raring involves a number of activities on the part of the speaker. In the first place, the information of the concept will take place at a linguistics level. I.e. in the brain; the first stage may, therefore, be said to be psychological. The nervous system transmits this message to the so-called ‘organ of speech’ and these in turn behave in a conventional manner, which, as we have learned by experience, will have the effect of producing a particular pattern of sound; the second important stage for our purpose may thus be said to be Articulatory or physiological. The movement of our organs of speech will create disturbances on air, or whatever the medium may be through which we are talking; these varying air pressures may be investigated and they constitute the third stage in our chain, the physical or acoustic. Since communication generally requires a listener as a speaker, these stages will be reserved at the listening end; the reception of the sound waves by the hearing apparatus (physiological) and the transmission of the information along the nervous system to the brain, where the linguistic interpretation of the message take place (psychological).

The language is acquired, it means we not born with language, it is not innate, But we have born with the organ of speak.

We have born with the highly skilled capacity (metally) of acquiring a language speaking.

Example: a baby doesn’t speak at first time although he has speak organs of speech.

A primary function of the so-called organs of speak is breathing and eating, not speaking. This is purely biological function.

Speech is only a secondary function (because man has spoken incidently).

by argelina Thu 9 Sep - 13:36

Organs Of Speech
Like animals, man has the ability to produce sounds by using certain of his body’s mechanisms.

The human being deferent from other animals in that, he has been able to organize the range of sounds which he can emit into a highly efficient system of communication.

Animals do not progress beyond intimate, they only produces sounds as a reflex to certain sentiments like: fear, hunger, illness…

Like other animals, man uses organs whose primary function is purely biological.

To communicate, he fellows:

I. Aerodynamics Of Speech:
There are 3 sources of air:

a. Pulmonic: comes from lungs. There is an exhalation of CO2 , so the flux of air is sent out by the windpipe. The pulmonic is proper to all.

b. Velaric: the air is compressed between the back of the tongue and soft palate.

c. Glottalic: air is compressed between the oral clauser and the glottis.

Air follows out when the sound is released, we used the glottalic air in case of ejections.

II. Direction Of Air:
there are two directions:

a. ..ressive air: is outgoing air

b. ingressive air: it means ingoing air, most human language uses egressive air.

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The Air

The air is very important for speaking. If there were no air, speaking would never exist, this is the reason that we pause when we speak, so that refill our lungs with air, the stream provided by the lungs under goes important modification in the upper stages of the respiratory before it acquires the sound first of all. The air from the lungs goes to the larynx layer …..ter. The larynx is casing formed of the cartilage and the muscle.

The larynx is situated in the upper cord of the trachea, formed Adams Apple. The larynx contain two vocal cords vibrate, one is a compression of air, beneath them or forcing them to open and shut. When the series of the open and close of glottis, it is called “vibration of the ………………… elastic tissue.

The vocal cords can be brought together or they can be ………. Biologically.

The vocal cords as lid, which prevent any ……….. body to go in the wind pipe, so as to prevent..

by argelina Thu 9 Sep - 13:40

The Vowels
A vowel may be defined in terms of both Phonetics & Phonology.

Phonetically, Vowels are sounds produced without a complete closure n the mouth or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction, the air is escapes freely (there is no obstruction) over the center of the tongue. If air escapes through the mouth, the vowels are said to be oral. If some air is simultaneously released through the nose cavity, they are said to be nasal.

From a Phonological point of view, vowels are units which function at the center of syllables.

In French, we have nasal vowels and oral vowels, but in English all vowels are oral.

The Description Of Vowels

To measure vowels, we have two conditions: the quantity & the quality.

1- The quantity:
short è 7 vowels { I , ℓ , æ , 9 , a , υ , K }
long: è 5 vowels {ί: , B: , r: , 1: , μ:}
Fully long: when final or when followed by voiced sounds
Reduced : when followed by voiceless sounds

2- The quality: we have 7 criteria
a. The first thing to say is the tongue raised (front, center, back)
b. Is the height of the tongue
c. The shape of the lips (very important)
d. The state of the tongue (leans or lax)
e. The position of rims of the tongue
f. The state of the velum (soft palate)
g. The position of the vocal cords.

/ ί: /

The vowel / ί: / is generally spelt as:

ee
e
ea
ie
ey
i

Tree
Be
Reason
Piece
Key
machine

- It is an RP long vowel

- It is pronounced with the front of the tongue raised slightly below and behind the close position that is below cardinal vowel n° 1.

- The lips are spread

- The tongue is tense so both rims are touching the upper molars

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

- Long / ί: / is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound
e.g.: <the / ί: / sound is underlined>

Be
Reason
Seize
Key
machine
Canteen

Season
Quay
Sea
See
Fee
free

- Long / ί: / is reduced when it is followed by a voiceless sound

Leaf
Brief
Complete
Piece
Suite

/ I /

- It is an RP short vowel

- It is pronounced with a part of the tongue nea…ts center show to front

- The lips are loosely spread

- The tongue is lax compared with the tension for / ί: /

- The rims of the tongue are in slight contact with the upper molars.

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ I / sound is spelt as

I
Sit
Rich
City
Bit
Fit
Big

Y
City
Pretty
Twenty
Heavy

e
Pretty
England

ie
Ladies

a
Village

o
Women

u
business

/ e /

- It is an RP short vowel

- The front of the tongue is raised between half close and half open position

- The lips are slightly spread

- The tongue may be tenses then in the case of the vowel / I /

- The rims make a slight contact with the upper molars.

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ e / sound is generally spelt as

e
Set
men
bed
set
went

ea
Head
Dead
Beath
Death

a
Many
Thames
ate

u
Buny

ai
Said

eo
Geoffrey

ei
Leicebter
friend

/ æ /

- It is an RP short vowel though it is not realy short

- The mouth is slightly more open than for /e/

- The front of the tongue is raised just below the half open position

- The tongue is tenses then in the case of the vowel / e /

- The rims make a very slight contact with the back upper molars.

- The lips are neutrally open

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ æ / sound is generally spelt as

a
Sat
Sad
Hand
Lamp
Pack

Bag
Back
Cab
Mass
Cap

Badge
Man
Jam
Fat
Balcony

Dad
Fat
han
Bat

ai
plait

/ 9 /

- It is an RP short vowel

- The center of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position

- The lips are neutrally open

- The tongue is tenses then in the case of the vowel / e /

- The jaws being considerably open so there is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

- The tongue is lax

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ 9 / sound is generally spelt as

u
Sum
Mum
Much
Cut
cluck
Luck

o
Some
Done
Colon
one
Mouth
Mother

ou
Country
Tough
Enough

oo
Blood
Flood

oe
does

/ a: /

- It is an RP long vowel

- It is articulated with the back of the tongue in the fully open position

- The lips are neutrally open

- The tongue is lax

- There is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ a: / is generally spelt as

ar
Part
Car
March
Charles
Bar
Farm

ear
Heart
Hearth

er
Derby
Sergeant
Clerk

al
Half
Calm
Palm

au
Laugh
aunt

/a:/ it is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound
e.g.

Car
Card
Vase

/a:/ it is reduced when it is followed by a voicedless sound
e.g

Pass
Cart
march

/ Y /

- It is an RP short vowel

- It is articulated with the back of the tongue in the fully open position

- The lips are open rounded

- the jaws are wide open so there is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ Y: / is generally spelt as

o
Dock
Gone
Song
Long
Often
Lodge

a
Was
What
Want
Swan
Watch

ou
Cough

ow
Knowledge

au
Because
Cauliflower
Austria
Australia

/ 1: /

- It is an RP long vowel

- It is articulated with the back of the tongue raised between ½ close and ½ open position.

- It is articulated with mid lip rounding

- There is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

- It never occurs before / /

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ 1: / is generally spelt as

or
cord
sword
horse
for
stork
Born

aw
jaw
Dawn

ou
bought
ought

a
All
Ball
Called
Salt
Water

ore
Before
More

oor
Door
Floor

our
Four
Court

oar
Board

/ 1:/ it is fully long when it is final or when it is followed by a voiced sound

e.g.

Cord
Door
Tall
Saw

/ 1:/ it is reduced when it is followed by a voicedless sound

e.g.

Talk
Horse
Bought
daughter

TIP: when it is final / 1:/ is diphthongised
e.g. more [n1:] à [n1K] four [f1:] à [f1K]

/ U /

- It is an RP short vowel

- It is pronounced with part of the tongue nearer to the center than to back

- The tongue is raised just above the half close position

- It has symmetrical back relationship with the front vowel / I /

- The tongue is laxer than it is for the vowel / u: /

- The lips are closely but loosely rounded

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ U / is spelt as

u
Put
Full
Sugar
Cushion
Butcher

o
Wolf
Women

oo
Good
Wood
Wool
Book

ou
Could
Courier
Should
Would

/ u: /

- It is an RP long vowel

- It is a back close vowel but not as back and as close as cardinal vowel n° 8

- The tongue is tense is no firm contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

- The lips are closely rounded

- The velum is raised and the vocal cords vibrate.

/ u: / is spelt as

oo
Food
Boot
Balloon
Platoon
Buffoon

Saloon
School
Pool
Loop

ou
Soup
Group
Wound
Through
You

o
Do

u
Rude
Deluge
Rule
Susan
June

ew
Chew

ue
Blue

ui
Juice
Suit

oe
Shoe

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Types of Vowels (TD)

In RP, English contain 44 sounds (24 consonant & 20 vowels).

è What is the difference between “consonant” & “vowel”?

Definition:

Vowels: are a class of sounds produced with no obstruction to the flow air as it pass from lungs to the side, the air is sent out more or less freely over the center of the tongue.

Consonants: are sounds produced with either a complete obstruction to the flow of air or moving.

è How to describe the vowels?

We need 2 conditions: we describe vowels in terms of quantity and quality.

1. The quantity: short vowels (7) and long vowels (5).

2. The quality: we have:

a. Height of the tongue (close, open)

b. Part of the tongue (front, center, back)

c. The shape of the lips (spread, sound, neutral)

d. The state of the tongue

e. The state of the rims of the tongue

f. The state of the velum (raised = oral, lowered = nasal)

g. The state of the vocal cords (vibrating V+, non vibrating V-)

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The Vowels: Voiced & Voiceless

When a long vowel is followed by a voiced sound consonant or final the word, this long vowel is fully long
e.g. car /ka:/

When a long vowel is followed by a voiceless consonant, this vowel is reduced.
e.g. cart /ka: t/

All English vowels are voiced, that mean the vocal cords vibrate.

by argelina Thu 9 Sep - 13:41

Diphthongs
Diphthong is a gliding vowel, it is a sequence of two vowels, they may be said to have the first element or a starting point and second element that is point in the direction of which the glide is made, the RP has the first element in the region of /ε/ /e/ /λ/ /¶/ /υ/

Diphthongs are composed in two kinds:

Closing diphthongs: are those whose 2nd element is ι or υ

Centering diphthongs : are those whose 2nd element is ¶

There are 8 diphthongs:
1) / ei / it is an RP diphthong, it starts behind the half close position toward the position of RP short /i/, the lips are spread, the velum is raised, and the vocal cords vibrate.
e.g. ape, rail, great, gauge, gaol, halfpenny, day, may, game, take

2) / ¶i / it starts behind the open front and moved toward RP short /i/, the lips are in half close form in the 2nd element.
e.g. pie, time, my, right, height, island, fragile, climb

3) / כi / it is start below the half open position and moves toward RP /i/, the lips are open rounded for the 1st element, and change to neutral in the 2nd.
e.g. boy, enjoy, oil, avoid, coin

4) / ¶υ / it begins at the centre position between ½ close and ½ open and moves toward RP /υ/, the lips are neutral for the 1st element, and rounded in the 2nd.
e.g. go, home, goal, broach, mauve

5) / aυ / it start in the open back position and moves toward /υ/, the lips change from neutrally open to widely rounded
e.g. how, town, caw, about, out, mouth, house.

6) / i¶ / the RP glide begin just about the ½ close position and moves toward the more open variety /¶/ when it’s final.
e.g. near, dear, ear, hear, year, museum, superior, hero

7) / ε¶ / it starts between the ½ close and the ½ position and moves toward the variety especially when it’s final, the lips are neutrally open.
e.g. care, rare, hair, share, marry, pair

8) / υ¶ / it starts from the RP short // towards a variant of the schwa, the lips are quickly rounded.
e.g. poor, moor, fewer, during.